Chapter 12: The Madness Gene

In chapter twelve, Kolbert explains the extinction of the neanderthals and the factors that could’ve led up to it. The Neander Valley is in Germany and it is an attraction where visitors can see how the neanderthals lived.  Tools and bones have been discovered all across the Middle East and Europe. They lived through cold climates until their sudden extinction thirty thousand years ago. There were theories about why this happened such as climate change or disease. The author believes that humans were the cause of the demise of the neanderthals. She meets Svante Pääbo who studies ancient genetics. When the bones of the neanderthals were first discovered, they were disregarded because it was believed that they were just human bones. “The bones, they said, belonged to an ordinary person. One theory held that it was a cossack who had wandered into the region in the tumult following the Napoleonic Wars. The reason the bones looked odd- Neanderthal femurs are distinctly bowed-- was that the cossack had spent too long on his horse.” (241) This shows how Neanderthals and humans share a great amount of traits due to some shared genes. When humans encountered and bred with the neanderthals, they established a gene mixture continued to transform. This chapter connects to the theme, science is a process. As scientists continued to make observations about the differences in the bone structure of humans and neanderthals, it allowed them to understand how neanderthals evolved into modern humans. 

 

Chapter 11: The Rhino Gets An Ultrasound

In chapter eleven, Kolbert is at the Cincinnati Zoo where she met Suci, a sumatran rhino. She is part of one of the last five species of rhinos that living and the oldest. Sumatran rhinos once lived abundantly in the Himalayas. This was put to a halt as the forests of southeast Asia were cut down which created a decrease in their habitat. Over the years, the population has continued to diminish. Conservationists from singapore tried to prevent this by capturing forty rhinos and seven were sent to the United States. These efforts weren’t very successful in the beginning. The rhinos that were sent to America were fed hay which is not a good diet for them. This caused four out of the seven to die. Two rhinos were sent to the Cincinnati Zoo and there were many attempts to get a rhino named Emi, pregnant but Suci was born eventually. In this chapter, the author was questioning why oversized animals were going extinct. The book states, “Much more recently, toward the end of the last ice age, jumbo sized animals could be found in pretty much all parts of the world.” To answer her question, she went to Big Bone Lick because during the eighteenth and nineteenth century, bones from different species of animals were sent there. Some theories are that climate change led to the extinction of oversized animals and another was that throughout history, animals are hunted for multiple reasons. This chapter connects to the theme, Human survival depends on developing practices that will achieve sustainable systems. This was evident with the efforts of the singaporean conservationists and the many attempts to impregnate Emi. If humans change their habits, this would protect all different species around us. 

Chapter 10: The New Pangaea

This chapter begins by describing an event where wildlife biologists were getting a bat census in Albany. This was during winter because bats are hibernating in stable caves. When they got there, they were shocked at a peculiar sight. They found dead bats and it looked like they were dunked in talcum powder. The next winter, dead bats were also found with a white powdery substance on them, and it continued to happen in subsequent winters. This powder was concluded to be a fungus that was prominent in the cold. It was called geomyces destructans and it was accidentally imported to America from Europe. This chapter focuses on the transport of animals across continents. Darwin discussed that it is impossible for animals to travel across continents without the help of humans. Naturally, there are some processes that allow certain species to travel, such as fungi being blown through the wind but there are many limits because of land masses like oceans. Kolbert participated in a bat census with Al Hicks, and when they were there, they also found dead bats who had the fungus on them. Once again, chapter ten demonstrates how humans alter natural systems. The transport of  geomyces destructans and animals to different parts of the world affects species negatively. Kolbert states, “As in the high stakes game, two very different things can happen when a new organism shows up. The first, which might be called the empty chamber option, is nothing. Either because the climate is unsuitable, or because the creature can’t find enough to eat, or because it gets eaten itself.” (201) This shows how when animals are brought to different parts of the world, it alters certain ecosystems. A transported animal can either die off, or it can thrive in this new part of the world but affect the ecosystem.

Chapter 13: The Thing with Feathers

In the last chapter Kolbert goes to the Institute for Conservation Research (ICR) to research the future of preserving endangered animals. Kolbert starts to think of why species have to be endangered and that if humans could destroy so much in the environment they could also protect the environment from their actions. Kolbert starts to focus on the positives that humans are doing. An example being in 1974, Congress passed the Endangered Species Act, which arranged for the protection of animals on the verge of going extinct. Another example being the way Kolbert notices that people are dedicating time and effort to getting certain species to reproduce and save them from extinction. This serves as hope for the future that people can somehow prevent or alter events from occurring. Changing the planet's biodiversity will start with the altering of human actions that have become normalized. I personally find that many people chose to disregard what is happening in the world because they are ignorant and do not see constant changes in our environment as a threat.

Chapter 12: The Madness Gene

In this chapter Kolbert addresses the role that homo sapiens may have played in wiping out Neanderthals. Neanderthals were proven to have been a smart species specializing in the making of tools including blades and scrapers made from stone flakes. Some argue that homo sapiens killed off the neanderthal species through interbreeding. Kolbert visits the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany were neanderthal fossils were first discovered. In analyzing the fossils scientists were able to see distinctions in bone structure revealing that they belonged to a different species than Homo Sapiens. Neanderthals were at first thought to be uncivilized creatures but after World War II scientists concluded that Neanderthals were not slouchy and hairy but in fact shared close resemblance to that of Homo Sapiens. Through DNA it is shown that Neanderthals could possibly shape the genetics of many modern humans.The theory of evolution is that humans first lived in Africa 200 million years ago and migrated across the globe to Europe, Asia, the Americas and Australia. This theory is known as “Out of Africa.” A relevant theme is human survival depends on developing practices that will achieve sustainable systems since what makes homo sapiens themselves is deemed the way they interact with one another. Homo Sapiens have proven to be very intelligent as far as evolution goes and in comparison to Neanderthals. 

Chapter 11: The Rhino gets and Ultrasound

In chapter 11 Kolbert visits the Sumatran rhinoceros named Suci,  one of only five rhino species left on the planet. rhinos were once very common throughout the world, but after the 20th century, rhinos began to go extinct. a conservation group decided to send a small number of Sumatran rhinos to American zoos in hopes of perpetuating the species in captivity. However, five of these rhinos died almost immediately, thanks to a disease spread by flies which is due to the exportation of them to other environments. Kolbert questions why so many large animals are going extinct, which is why she travels to a famous fossil site, Big Bone Lick. It was believed by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin that the ice age had killed off such large animals but other scientists argued it was the introduction of humans were responsible for the extinction of large animals. This relates to the them Humans have had an impact on the environment for millions of years because according to Jared Diamond and his observations (pg. 231) he brings up the point that “Australian giants had survived innumerable droughts in their tens of millions of years… and then have chosen to drop dead almost simultaneously precisely and coincidentally when the first humans arrived.” This indicates that the arrival of humans makes it look sketchy that these animals would be wiped off the face of the earth after adapting to tough climates. 

Chapter 10:The New Pangea

In this chapter like the golden frogs from Chapter One, the bats are dying off at an alarming rate due to a new toxin. When looking at the dead bats in New York, they saw that each of them had a white nose which scientists found to be an imported psychrophile which is a type of fungus. This is similar to the case of the golden frogs as humans have shown to be the main reason why it is traveling so fast due to trade. Darwin could not understand exactly how animals were able to travel without the aid of humans long ago. This thought later leads to  Alfred Wegener breakthrough as he established the theory of “continental drift” which means that continents were unified into the supercontinent Pangea. The present day transportation of animals from continent to continent means that these animals must adapt to new environments quickly. A theory as to why some animals are able to adapt in a new environment is referred to as “enemy release.” This is when “A species has been transported to a new spot, especially on a new continent, has left may of its rivals and predators behind.” This has to do with the theme technology and population growth have enabled humans to increase both the rate and scale of their impact on the environment since this can also cause a change in an environments original food chain. 

Chapter 9: Islands on Dry Land

In Chapter 9 Kolbert discusses environment-related specialization and how a small change in an environment can have devastating consequences for beings living in that environment because they may not be able to adapt fast enough. Kolbert visits Reserve 1202 which is an island in the center of the Amazon rainforest. These reserves were founded by Tom Lovejoy who wanted a way to protect certain rainforest areas from farmers cutting down trees. Lovejoy’s research involves making comparisons between the tiny reserves and the main rainforest area. When Kolbert goes to Reserve 1202 with an ornithologist named Mario Cohn-Haft she learns that there has been a decline in the diversity of bird species as she is shown through the bird calls made late at night. On page 179 Cohn Haft states “ there wasn’t just suddenly this new equilibrium with fewer species. There was this steady degradation in diversity over time” which shows that this was a process which didn’t occur at once. It happened steadily as the trees were being cut down. This is another example of the magnitude of the effects of human activity on the natural world. This relates to the theme that management of common resources is essential because if humans were to not take advantage of various natural resources then situations like the birds would not happen as often and as fast as it is.

Chapter 8:The Forest and the Trees

This chapter discusses the global effects of warming and how it not only affects animals but also affects other living things specifically tropical life forms.  Kolbert visits Manú National Park where she meets a forest ecologist, Miles Silman, who studies how the climate has changed in the tropics. Kolbert presents the idea that if you travel downward from the North Pole to the United States the population of trees will increase. This shows that climate has a huge effect on plant life. There are many different theories about why rainforests are so conducive to biodiversity. Some of these theories suggest that there is a positive relationship between stable climate and biodiversity. The biodiversity of rainforests shows that an ecosystem relies heavily on stable temperature and levels of moisture. Kolbert looks at how the number of species in an area is linked to the size of an area. This shows that animals are migrating further up to find environments that they can adapt to. Global warming is shrinking the areas where plants and animals can survive. As temperatures are predicted to go up Silman states “ Have plants and animals retained over this huge amount of time- whole radiations of mammals have come and gone in this period- have they retained these potentially costly characteristics?” and Kolbert goes on to wonder what would happen if they haven’t “What if they’ve lost these costly characteristics because for so many millions of years they provided no advantage?” This relates to the theme a suitable combination of conservation and development is required for survival because thee plants may have been able to survive such high temperatures through adaptation but that was almost 15 million years ago and it remains a question of whether they will be able to withstand a sudden increase once more. 

Chapter 7: Dropping Acid

Kolbert visits One Tree Island, on the southernmost tip of the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, to learn more about the changing biodiversity of the oceans and chemical composition of the nearby coral reefs. Charles Darwin had done some research on coral reefs and concluded that they were a large atoll that had become submerged in water due to rising sea levels. A coral reef is largely composed of a calcium-rich structure that contains many different plants, animals, and minerals. Kolbert refers to them as “ship destroying ramparts constructed by tiny gelatinous creatures” (pg 130) which means that they are dependent on adding new life forms to their composition in order for them to grow. Kolbert meets with scientist Ken Caldeira who focuses on the impact of carbon dioxide on ocean pH. He explains that the rise of carbon dioxide in the surrounding waters greatly impacts the reefs making them erode and dissolve. On page 130 Kolbert brings up the fact that “millions of species have evolved to rely on coral reefs…..It is likely that reefs will be the first major ecosystem in the modern era to become ecologically extinct.” This relates to the theme humans alter natural systems because by affecting the oceans humans are killing the corals. This will in turn cause grave dangers within other underwater species which will in turn affect other animals on land. 

Chapter 6: The Sea Around Us

In this chapter Kolbert travels to Castello Aragonese and goes in depth to discuss the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels on the Earth’s oceans. Kolbert meets two marine biologists named Jason Hall-Spencer and Maria Cristina Buia who take Kolbert to an acidified bay and show her the huge green bubbles rising from the vents in the seafloor and the very little sea life down there. The Industrial Revolution was the start of burning huge quantities of fossil fuels rising CO2 levels. This has gravely impacted oceans and the environment. Kolbert brings up the point that it has caused negative impacts in stating  "Since the start of the industrial revolution, humans have burned through enough fossil fuels--coal, oil, and natural gas--to add some 365 billion metric tons of carbon to the atmosphere"; thus, the general opinion and fact is that in the Anthropocene era humans are responsible for the devastation of the diversity in the environment.” (pg. 113) This relates to the theme of environmental problems have a cultural and social context because the functioning of our daily lives do depend on these actions whether they have negative impacts or not. It would be very hard for people to solve this issue without changing this modern culture everyone has grown accustomed to. 

Chapter 5: Welcome to the Anthropocene

In chapter 5 Kolbert Kolbert describes how many people attempt to perceive unfamiliar information through the lenses of trying to fit it into a familiar framework proven through an experiment done in identifying cards. With this experiment Thomas kuhn a science historian explained science progression due to humans. At first, we try to respond to our new environment using the same strategies we already know. But eventually, we adapt and learn new strategies to survive. This became the concept of the “paradigm shift.” Kolbert meets with stratigrapher Jan Zalasiewicz, who shows her layers of rock dating back 445 million years to the era immediately following the extinction of the dinosaurs and look into other mass extinctions such as the graptolites.  The extinction of the graptolites was caused by changes in ocean chemistry as well as by rising sea levels and temperatures. Kolbert’s studies and interviews with renowned scientists produce proof that similar ecological effects are occurring today. Kolbert also learns about Zalasiewicz’s theory of giant rats; rats will take over the planet. Rats have grown in population due to trade. In fact, Chicago has been named the rat capital and nyc comes close as well. They are seen everywhere especially in subway systems. The growing number of rats around the world is causing an imbalance in the food chain by killing other species off closely relating to the theme of humans alter natural systems.

Chapter 4: The Luck of the Ammonities

In this chapter Kolbert discusses the extinction event that killed the dinosaurs (Cretaceous-Paleogene). It starts off by describing the town of Gubbio made up of limestone. In the 1970’s a geologist named Walter Alvarez discovered the traces of a huge asteroid that struck the Earth in the Cretaceous period which later was later determined to have been responsible for the extinction of dinosaurs. The Alvarezes’ theory of the dinosaurs’ extinction was initially met with disdain but was accepted as it it explained why certain layers of the Earth were rich in iridium as found in the clay embedded in the limestone of Gubbio, and the extinction of dinosaurs. This brought support to the catastrophist idea that the history of the planet was characterized by sudden, global catastrophes that caused large numbers of species to go extinct. The point the asteroid’s impact of dust and debris proved to be worse than the actual asteroid is also brought up. As well as the survival of ammonites and the impact of the asteroid which caused them to go extinct as well. On page 90 kolbert states “ in times of extreme stress, the whole concept of fitness, at least in a darwinian sense, loses its meaning.” This shows how although ammonites evolutionarily useful traits the asteroid took a huge toll on their survival. This relates to the theme Science constantly changes the way we understand the world. After learning this Darwin’s theory of natural selection which is very well known is not as credible. 

Chapter 3: The Original Penguin

In chapter 3 Kolbert introduces two words; a catastrophist which means a scientist who believed that the history of the planet was characterized by sudden, global catastrophes that caused large numbers of species to go extinct and the opposite, a uniformitarian which means one that believes the earth’s crust and geological history was founded on a slow and continuous uniform process. Thes difference goes hand in hand with the concept of extinction. Charles Lyell an example of a uniformitarian proposed that, while some species certainly went extinct, extinction was a slow, gradual process, not a sudden, catastrophic mass-death. Charles Darwin admired the work of Lyell which led him to the idea of natural selection; as well as his long voyages. Darwin’s theory of natural selection was revolutionary because it was based on the premise that there are too many species competing for too few resources. Thereafter the chapter goes into discuss how settlers in iceland exploited an ancient penguin-like bird, the great auk. They used it for food, oil and its feathers. This led to the extinction of this animal, even after attempts of its protection. This relates to the theme that Humans alter natural systems. On page 61 it states “Whether the teams [European hunters] actually managed to kill off every last one of the island’s auks or whether the slaughter simply reduced the colony to the point that it became vulnerable to other forces is unclear. (Diminishing population density may have made survival less likely for the remaining individuals, a phenomenon known as the Allee effect.)” The slaughtering of animals like the great auks proves detrimental to their species. This case proves to be a little different in comparison to the frogs in Panama- although the frogs were transported to other parts of the world with the chytrid fungi exposing it to other species. 

Chapter 2: The Mastodon's Molars

In chapter 2 Kolbert presents the scientific idea of extinction as something supposedly universally accepted even by children. This in part due to a naturalist named Georges Cuvier studied the fossils of an animal now known as the American mastodon, or Mammut americanum, and concluded that all such creatures must have died out in the distant past. The Mastodon remains from Ohio, as well as the remains of a similar creature that had been discovered in Russia were one of Cuvier’s important breakthroughs. It was at first believed to have been the teeth of a giant but Cuvier proposed that the two sets of remains belonged to huge, elephantine creatures; two new animal species, neither one of which had survived. Cuvier called these kinds of creatures “lost creatures.” It states “ About thirty million years ago the proboscidean line that would lead to mastodons split off from the line that would lead to mammoths and elephants. The ladder would eventually evolve its more sophisticated teeth , which are made up of enamel covered plates that have been fused into a shape a bit like a bread loaf.” (pg. 32) This shows that the chapter relates to the theme that science is a process because the theory that species never appear or disappear which was believed to be true for a long time became clear that it was flawed as more evidence of fossils were discovered revealing that they had died long ago.

Chapter 1: The Sixth Extinction

In the opening chapter author Elizabeth Kolbert introduces an ongoing crisis in the Panamanian town of El Valle de Anton. Various species of frogs were very common in Panama until recently when golden frogs specifically began to disappear rapidly. Kolbert works with Edgardo Griffth, the director of El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center (EVACC), to seek answers to what is causing the extinction rate of the frogs to increase. In testing samples taken from dead frogs, they found that Chytrid Fungi was the culprit of the frogs sickenings. It is revealed that the population of frogs across the world was depleting in areas from South America, Europe and Australia. A theory behind this is that the Chytrid fungi is spreading to other parts of the world through the shipment of amphibians leaving South America that are infected with the fungi but do not present signs of being affected. On page 17 of the chapter it states “Probably one amphibian species should go extinct every thousand years or so.” Kolbert then describes how her and Griffith have “observed several amphibian extinctions.” This situation relates to the theme that natural systems change overtime and space because what was then believed to be a natural process for the population of these amphibians has changed as the chytrid fungi continues to wipe out amphibian species faster than the time suggested by scientists. EVACC’s main purpose has been to try and conserve these amphibians until they can be set free again which poses as a struggle at that time.

"The Sixth Extinction" Chapter 13- Matthew Batista

Kolbert takes a quote from Jonathan Schell about how futurology has become a respectable field on inquiry. Then she transitions into how liquid nitrogen is now being used to preserve the cells of animals and eventually bring them back from extinction. She tells us that it is our role as human beings to save ourselves and the organisms around us from extinction, or at least delay it. Before this the book seemed fairly negative and it focused on how humans are negatively affecting the world. However, chapter 13 takes a twist and Kolbert begins to show us how positive actions are being taken. Kolbert states, “Such is the pain the pain loss of a single species causes that we’re willing to perform ultrasounds on rhinos and hand jobs on crows.” Connecting the theme of humans altering natural systems, we can do as much good as we do bad. She points out how humans are going to such extremes because they know extinction exist and they’re taking it very seriously. A big take away for me this chapter was when Kolbert said “If you want to think about why humans are so dangerous to other species, you can picture a poacher in Africa carrying an AK-47 or a logger in the Amazon gripping an ax, or, better still, you can picture yourself, holding a book on your lap”(266). Me completing this assignment and finishing up these last words for the journal entry has made me realize it is easier to be destructive than constructive. We are all apart of the problem and we have to realize that our actions are the root to our own destruction. “In pushing other species to extinction, humanity is busy sawing off the limb on which it perches.”-Paul Ehrlich

 

"The Sixth Extinction" Chapter 12- Matthew Batista

The first Neanderthal to be unearthed was found in 1856, and thought to be a deformed human. Since then, the Neanderthal was misinterpreted as a brutish figure. Due to the reconstruction of a Neanderthal's DNA, as well as finding tools used by Neanderthals, the modern image of a Neanderthal, sophisticated beings with tools and animal-skin clothing, was formed.

Europe was home to the Neanderthals for at least 100,000 years. Then, about 30,000 years ago, the Neanderthals vanished. Fossil records show that modern humans arrived in Europe 40,000 years ago. Within 10,000 years, Neanderthals were bred out. Through molecular sequencing, we have found that there is 1% to 4% percent Neanderthal DNA in all non-African humans. This indicates that humans and Neanderthals reproduced, and then the resulting hybrids reproduced. The pattern continued until Neanderthals were literally bred out. Kolbert states, “There is every reason to believe that if humans had no arrived on the scene, Neanderthals would be there still along with wild horses and the woolly rhinos”(258). Once again, Kolbert brings it to the readers attention that we have altered natural systems and we are the cause of extinction. Before it was about animals but now human like species were even removed from the Earth because of human activity.
 An interesting point that was brought up in this chapter was the little difference in our genetic sequence that makes us different from the Neanderthals. Svante Paabo, head of the department of evolutionary genetics, explains, “If we one day will know that some freak mutation made the human insanity exploration thing possible, it will be amazing to think that iwas this little chromosome that made all this happen…”(251). When you think of the different species that roam our Earth they all have one thing in common and that’s the fight of survival. With the fight of survival, this causes them to be very cautious and they don’t let their curiosity get the best of them because it can be fatal. However, human are the opposite. We don’t have a limit. Right now we’re trying to colonize mars. Personally, I believe that there is no other species that existed or in the future might be created that has this drive like we do. The “madness” that drives us is scary, but it’s also amazing and it’s why we have made it so far as a society. 

"The Sixth Extinction" Chapter 11- Matthew Batista

Kolbert recalls when she viewed the Cincinnati Zoo and met Sumatran rhino named Suci who was being cared for by the director of the zoo, Dr. Terri Roth. She goes on to talk about how the Sumatran rhino is one of only five rhino species left in existence. Due to the low amount of Sumatrans left, Roth is trying to get Suci to become pregnant, but fails. The breeding of endangered animals to preserve their specified has been in effect for decades. This the main reason the rhinos haven't become extinct. Kolbert then transitions to how the cause of the extinction of large animals is due to climate change and the over-hunting of those animals by humanity. Kolbert states, “Asian elephants have declined by fifty percent over the last three generations. African elephants are doing better, but, like rhinos, they’re increasingly threatened by poaching”(223). It’s scary to think that these magnificent creatures are going to be put into wildlife areas and they won’t roam the world anymore. This connects to humans altering natural systems because important animals are being hunted solely for the commodities their bodies possess such as ivory, medicinal potential, and skin. With poaching, it leads to a great decrease in the number of animals and if this trend continues these animals will go extinct. 

To go back to he Sumatran Rhino, they were once so abundant in numbers it was considered an agricultural pest. However, as Southeast Asia’s forests were cut down, the rhino’s habitat became fragmented. In the 1900s, the rhino population had been shrunk to just a few hundred. A captive breeding program was widely regarded as a failure and resulted in the deaths of several rhinos, and it was decades before a single baby was born. Today, there are only forty living rhinos. When is enough? It’s interesting because I just wanna know when humans will realize what they’re doing and stop because at this point I think they will only realize when these species actually go extinct. 

"The Sixth Extinction" Chapter 10- Matthew Batista

Kolbert points out that there is an evolutionary arms race, in which each species must be equipped to defend against their potential predators, and need to be more fit than their competition. A species has no defense if it encounters a new fungus, virus, or bacterium. This can be extremely deadly, as it was in the case of American bats killed by the psychrophilic fungus Geomyces destructans. This fungus, also known as White Nose-Syndrome or WNS, is a disease that is killing hibernating bats in eastern North America. WNS was first documented at four sites in eastern New York 2007. After that, photographs taken in February 2006 were found, showing affected bats at another site. Kolbert states, “The white powder is now known to be a cold-loving fungus- what’s known as a psychrophile- that was accidentally imported the the U.S., probably from Europe”(194). The deadly fungus that’s killing off all the bats isn’t natural. However, it’s another example of humans altering natural systems through introducing invasive species. Connecting back to the golden frogs in chapter 1, it’s clear that humans are causing extinction not only through global warming but also with messing with ecosystems. 

Later in the chapter, Kolbert talks about the studies of Charles Elton. Charles Elton was a British biologist who people tie the start of the studies of invasives with. Elton uses a very interesting analogy where he talks about glass tanks and all of the glass tanks are connected with tubes. Each glass tank would be filled with different chemicals and overtime the chemicals would seep into the other tanks. Kolbert states, “Some new compounds would form and some of the original compounds would drop out”(212). This analogy perfectly shows how invasive species affect the ecosystem. As new species are introduced to new areas the ones that once thrived in the area is killed off for various of reasons. One reason can be that there is finite amount of prey because invasive species are taking the food from the native species. Kolbert time and time again proves to us that human activity is hurting the Earth more than it’s helping the Earth. 

"Sixth Extinction" Chapter 9- Matthew Batista

Kolbert writes about how a project called the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project, or BDFFP for short, has set up several reserves on a series of islands that are part of an Amazonian archipelago. People from different scientific field study the islands in their entirety. These include botanist, ornithologist, and entomologist. The main reason this project was set up was to see the affect that humans would have on an area previously uninhabited by humans. 

Kolbert points out how everything in life is interconnected, and discusses the importance of patch dynamics. Over time, fragmentation of environmental areas leads to a decrease in the number of species in an area. This occurs, in part, because the size of such "islands" are too small to support a stable number of species members. For instance, Kolbert states, “A big cat that requires a range of forty square miles isn’t likely to make it for along in an area of only twenty square miles”(180). Animals have very specific living conditions and if these conditions are altered it can be detrimental to them. Also, smaller populations are more vulnerable to chance events. In addition, the disconnection of islands makes it more difficult for species to reach and recolonize them. One researcher describes this as "an obstacle course for the dispersal of biodiversity"(189). Kolbert also notes that the habits of many species can be highly specialized to their environment. She explains that one minor change can cause a domino effect in various ecological systems.

On the basis of the theme of “Earth itself is one interconnected system,” this is proven true in chapter 9. Carl and Marian Rettenmeyer, a pair of American naturalists, “...came up with a list of more than three hundred species that live in association with the ants”(184). When we think of ants and their size they seem like they have a meniscal impact on the environment. However, it’s the complete opposite because everything in nature has a purpose. Without the ants, various species of animals wouldn’t be able to get food. For example, the ant-following birds wouldn’t be able to strive in their environment if the ants didn’t exist. Humans are just one piece of the Earths puzzle. Even the smallest creatures matter a great deal and it’s because Earth is one big chained system. 

The Sixth Extinction: Chapter 13

In this chapter, Kolbert visits the Institute for Conservation Research to research the possible outcomes of human action and how it may affect the future. While studying, she questions if it is necessary to get rid of many species in order to make room for humanity. A connection to Darwin's theory is that in order for a species to become part of a new ecosystem, another must become extinct. The seriousness of this issue is presented by Barbara Durrant, who has spent most of her time trying to get endangered crows to reproduce unsuccessfully. I wonder if what’s happening is actually natural and these animals are meant to go extinct no matter how much humans attempt to help them. Kolbert goes on to explain that humans will cause the sixth extinction but what isn’t clear is if we will be able to revert or past actions to prevent these species from extinction. Kolbert ends the book by stating that many scientists argue that humans themselves are running out of time on this planet and should look for another place to inhabit. The problem with this thinking is that it’s absolutely selfish, and it disregards other living creatures on earth. To say the least this book left me absolutely puzzled, it got me thinking more and more of what’s in our control and if by trying to control things or in other words save the planet we are actually driving ourselves insane trying to stop what is natural.

"Sixth Extinction" Chapter 8- Matthew Batista

As you approach the equator, the variety of life increases, due to the sped up evolutionary clock. When studying the great diversity of trees in Peru, Miles Silman noticed that the trees are also migrating due to the climate change. Some tree plots (areas of the forest with similar temperature, humidity, and species) moved as much as eight inches higher in elevation to adapt to the warming climate. Chris Thomas, a biologist at the University of York, states, “Climate change alone is unlikely to generate a mass extinction as large as one of the Big Five… climate change on its own could generate a level of extinction on par with… ‘lesser’ extinction events”(160). This is an interesting point because it contradicts Kolberts idea of human activity creating the “Sixth Extinction.” However, she includes it because it shows that even if the extinction isn’t grand there is still going to be an extinction. This connects to the theme “Humans alter natural systems” because global warming is a man made phenomenon. Due to global warming, the climate is changing and it’s putting various species in danger because not all species can migrate and the ones that can’t adapt or find the climate best suited for them are going to disappear. 

Global warming is most commonly seen as a threat to cold-loving species. As temperatures rise, the ice at the North Pole and South Pole will melt. Any living thing that depends on the ice will be faced with extreme challenges that could ultimately drive them to extinction. Kolbert points out that the poles are not the only places affected by global warming, and that other areas have much higher latitudinal diversity gradients. She discusses the work of scientists who have used measures of species-area relationship to model possible effects of global warming. The extent to which species are mobile and can relocate to new areas, in response to shifting climate conditions, is predicted to be a significant factor in possible species extinction. Returning to the idea of migrating trees, Even more difficult to estimate is the extent to which ecological communities of species will be able to tolerate disruptive changes.

In this chapter, Kolbert for the first time includes a solution. Kolbert states, “He has argues publicly that with better policing and well-placed reserves, many threats to biodiversity- illegal logging, mining, ranching- could be minimized”(170). I thought Kolbert was going to wait to the end to introduce a solution but this is the first glimpse at a solution. I totally agree with this idea also because I think the government has to start putting out more regulations to help the environment. Once laws are put out it changes the game because it forces people to care. We’ve seen with a plethora species that are about to go extinct get laws that protect them from getting hunted. However, what if we put similar regulations before they are even going endangered. Why do we wait until the species is about to go extinct to care?