Chapter 9: Islands on Dry Land

In Chapter 9 Kolbert discusses environment-related specialization and how a small change in an environment can have devastating consequences for beings living in that environment because they may not be able to adapt fast enough. Kolbert visits Reserve 1202 which is an island in the center of the Amazon rainforest. These reserves were founded by Tom Lovejoy who wanted a way to protect certain rainforest areas from farmers cutting down trees. Lovejoy’s research involves making comparisons between the tiny reserves and the main rainforest area. When Kolbert goes to Reserve 1202 with an ornithologist named Mario Cohn-Haft she learns that there has been a decline in the diversity of bird species as she is shown through the bird calls made late at night. On page 179 Cohn Haft states “ there wasn’t just suddenly this new equilibrium with fewer species. There was this steady degradation in diversity over time” which shows that this was a process which didn’t occur at once. It happened steadily as the trees were being cut down. This is another example of the magnitude of the effects of human activity on the natural world. This relates to the theme that management of common resources is essential because if humans were to not take advantage of various natural resources then situations like the birds would not happen as often and as fast as it is.

Chapter 8:The Forest and the Trees

This chapter discusses the global effects of warming and how it not only affects animals but also affects other living things specifically tropical life forms.  Kolbert visits Manú National Park where she meets a forest ecologist, Miles Silman, who studies how the climate has changed in the tropics. Kolbert presents the idea that if you travel downward from the North Pole to the United States the population of trees will increase. This shows that climate has a huge effect on plant life. There are many different theories about why rainforests are so conducive to biodiversity. Some of these theories suggest that there is a positive relationship between stable climate and biodiversity. The biodiversity of rainforests shows that an ecosystem relies heavily on stable temperature and levels of moisture. Kolbert looks at how the number of species in an area is linked to the size of an area. This shows that animals are migrating further up to find environments that they can adapt to. Global warming is shrinking the areas where plants and animals can survive. As temperatures are predicted to go up Silman states “ Have plants and animals retained over this huge amount of time- whole radiations of mammals have come and gone in this period- have they retained these potentially costly characteristics?” and Kolbert goes on to wonder what would happen if they haven’t “What if they’ve lost these costly characteristics because for so many millions of years they provided no advantage?” This relates to the theme a suitable combination of conservation and development is required for survival because thee plants may have been able to survive such high temperatures through adaptation but that was almost 15 million years ago and it remains a question of whether they will be able to withstand a sudden increase once more. 

Chapter 7: Dropping Acid

Kolbert visits One Tree Island, on the southernmost tip of the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, to learn more about the changing biodiversity of the oceans and chemical composition of the nearby coral reefs. Charles Darwin had done some research on coral reefs and concluded that they were a large atoll that had become submerged in water due to rising sea levels. A coral reef is largely composed of a calcium-rich structure that contains many different plants, animals, and minerals. Kolbert refers to them as “ship destroying ramparts constructed by tiny gelatinous creatures” (pg 130) which means that they are dependent on adding new life forms to their composition in order for them to grow. Kolbert meets with scientist Ken Caldeira who focuses on the impact of carbon dioxide on ocean pH. He explains that the rise of carbon dioxide in the surrounding waters greatly impacts the reefs making them erode and dissolve. On page 130 Kolbert brings up the fact that “millions of species have evolved to rely on coral reefs…..It is likely that reefs will be the first major ecosystem in the modern era to become ecologically extinct.” This relates to the theme humans alter natural systems because by affecting the oceans humans are killing the corals. This will in turn cause grave dangers within other underwater species which will in turn affect other animals on land. 

Chapter 6: The Sea Around Us

In this chapter Kolbert travels to Castello Aragonese and goes in depth to discuss the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels on the Earth’s oceans. Kolbert meets two marine biologists named Jason Hall-Spencer and Maria Cristina Buia who take Kolbert to an acidified bay and show her the huge green bubbles rising from the vents in the seafloor and the very little sea life down there. The Industrial Revolution was the start of burning huge quantities of fossil fuels rising CO2 levels. This has gravely impacted oceans and the environment. Kolbert brings up the point that it has caused negative impacts in stating  "Since the start of the industrial revolution, humans have burned through enough fossil fuels--coal, oil, and natural gas--to add some 365 billion metric tons of carbon to the atmosphere"; thus, the general opinion and fact is that in the Anthropocene era humans are responsible for the devastation of the diversity in the environment.” (pg. 113) This relates to the theme of environmental problems have a cultural and social context because the functioning of our daily lives do depend on these actions whether they have negative impacts or not. It would be very hard for people to solve this issue without changing this modern culture everyone has grown accustomed to. 

Chapter 5: Welcome to the Anthropocene

In chapter 5 Kolbert Kolbert describes how many people attempt to perceive unfamiliar information through the lenses of trying to fit it into a familiar framework proven through an experiment done in identifying cards. With this experiment Thomas kuhn a science historian explained science progression due to humans. At first, we try to respond to our new environment using the same strategies we already know. But eventually, we adapt and learn new strategies to survive. This became the concept of the “paradigm shift.” Kolbert meets with stratigrapher Jan Zalasiewicz, who shows her layers of rock dating back 445 million years to the era immediately following the extinction of the dinosaurs and look into other mass extinctions such as the graptolites.  The extinction of the graptolites was caused by changes in ocean chemistry as well as by rising sea levels and temperatures. Kolbert’s studies and interviews with renowned scientists produce proof that similar ecological effects are occurring today. Kolbert also learns about Zalasiewicz’s theory of giant rats; rats will take over the planet. Rats have grown in population due to trade. In fact, Chicago has been named the rat capital and nyc comes close as well. They are seen everywhere especially in subway systems. The growing number of rats around the world is causing an imbalance in the food chain by killing other species off closely relating to the theme of humans alter natural systems.

Chapter 4: The Luck of the Ammonities

In this chapter Kolbert discusses the extinction event that killed the dinosaurs (Cretaceous-Paleogene). It starts off by describing the town of Gubbio made up of limestone. In the 1970’s a geologist named Walter Alvarez discovered the traces of a huge asteroid that struck the Earth in the Cretaceous period which later was later determined to have been responsible for the extinction of dinosaurs. The Alvarezes’ theory of the dinosaurs’ extinction was initially met with disdain but was accepted as it it explained why certain layers of the Earth were rich in iridium as found in the clay embedded in the limestone of Gubbio, and the extinction of dinosaurs. This brought support to the catastrophist idea that the history of the planet was characterized by sudden, global catastrophes that caused large numbers of species to go extinct. The point the asteroid’s impact of dust and debris proved to be worse than the actual asteroid is also brought up. As well as the survival of ammonites and the impact of the asteroid which caused them to go extinct as well. On page 90 kolbert states “ in times of extreme stress, the whole concept of fitness, at least in a darwinian sense, loses its meaning.” This shows how although ammonites evolutionarily useful traits the asteroid took a huge toll on their survival. This relates to the theme Science constantly changes the way we understand the world. After learning this Darwin’s theory of natural selection which is very well known is not as credible. 

Chapter 3: The Original Penguin

In chapter 3 Kolbert introduces two words; a catastrophist which means a scientist who believed that the history of the planet was characterized by sudden, global catastrophes that caused large numbers of species to go extinct and the opposite, a uniformitarian which means one that believes the earth’s crust and geological history was founded on a slow and continuous uniform process. Thes difference goes hand in hand with the concept of extinction. Charles Lyell an example of a uniformitarian proposed that, while some species certainly went extinct, extinction was a slow, gradual process, not a sudden, catastrophic mass-death. Charles Darwin admired the work of Lyell which led him to the idea of natural selection; as well as his long voyages. Darwin’s theory of natural selection was revolutionary because it was based on the premise that there are too many species competing for too few resources. Thereafter the chapter goes into discuss how settlers in iceland exploited an ancient penguin-like bird, the great auk. They used it for food, oil and its feathers. This led to the extinction of this animal, even after attempts of its protection. This relates to the theme that Humans alter natural systems. On page 61 it states “Whether the teams [European hunters] actually managed to kill off every last one of the island’s auks or whether the slaughter simply reduced the colony to the point that it became vulnerable to other forces is unclear. (Diminishing population density may have made survival less likely for the remaining individuals, a phenomenon known as the Allee effect.)” The slaughtering of animals like the great auks proves detrimental to their species. This case proves to be a little different in comparison to the frogs in Panama- although the frogs were transported to other parts of the world with the chytrid fungi exposing it to other species.